Soviet Tank Gunnery Training

The Soviet soldier learns nothing about gunnery during his pre-military instruction nor during his basic training. At the completion of his 4-week basic training, the soon-tebe tank gunner takes his formal oath of enlistment, and is sent to the gunnery specialist school. Depending on the school, and the soldier’s natural aptitude, he will take about 4 weeks to complete the course. When the soldier reaches his unit, his training program is outlined by the Ministry of Defense, refiied and elaborated upon by the Military ’District, the Groups of Forces, and the division commanders. The regimental commander and his staff break down the number of hours for each had subject (political training, tactical training, etc.) to be taught by the battalions. Before informing the battalions, the regimental commander checks with the division commander for a p proval.’ Training of the gunner is, in effect, controlled by the division commander. Supposedly, the gunner spends 60 to 65 percent of his time in the field. And as much as 40 percent of his time is intended as night training. This will vary according to the availability of training resources and the dedication and ingenuity of his leadership. The Soviet gunners’ training is designed to produce a conditioned, rote response. To accomplish this, the gunner is primarily taught how to fire two types of engagements; one uses the stadia line rangefinder (precision gunnery), the other uses a principle called “grazing shot” (battlesight gunnery). To conserve ammunition, the Soviet gunner makes considerable use of subcaliber devices and simulators as does his American counterpart. Unlike his American counterpart, however, there is no equivalent to FM 17-12, Tank Gunnery, available to the Soviet gunner. His manuals are the work-notes he has made during the course of his training.

Recision gunnery, as leamed and used by the Soviet tank gunner is somewhat less than that practiced by the American tank gunner. The Soviet gunner must fmt determine the tank-to-target range by using the stadia rangefmder, an integral part of his gunsight. This horizontal reticle measures the distance by determining target height, rather than target width. The gunner’s telescope is located to the left side of the main gun. The front part is attached to the gun cradle and moves with the gun. The eyepiece section remains fixed. The front section contains two etched glass plates. ane displays the ballistic reticle for various types of ammunition, the stadia rangefinding scale, the aiming point, and the deflection scale. The other plate displays a crosswire and is fixed in position (figure l)? To set the proper superelevation for a given round, the places the crosswire on the desired ranging line of the appropriate ballistic reticle. After the range has been determined, the gunner moves his crosswire to the proper range mark on the ballistic reticle that corresponds to the ammunition used. He then lays the aiming point on the target and fires.

The other firing method is the grazing shot. Soviet manuals defiie this as: “A shot fired in such away that the projectile does not rise above the height of the target during the entire range of its trajectory, and the aiming point is the base of the target. The range of the ping 38 january-febtuary 1983 shot is the greatest range of the flight of a projectile during which the projectile never rises above the target height. Therefore, the range of the grazing shot depends on the height of the target and flatness of the trajectory.”3 This is battlesight gunnery as we know it. Theextremely high velocity of the Soviet armor defeating round provides the flat trajectory that is essential if the grazing shot is to be effective. Soviet armor doctrine is based on the attack. Therefore, tank gunnery training is geared to firng either at a halt, at a short halt, from a stationary position, or on the move as they advance. Firing at a short halt is used only when a target is dangerous; Le., an enemy tank emplacement, a difficult to reach position, or one so small that firing on the move would be ineffective. The half and short halt are differentiated by the amount of time the tank is stopped during the engagement. The halt can run from 30 to 50 seconds and the short halt is considerably shorter.

When firing from the halt, the tank is usually limited to two shots and no more than four. The tank remains in the halt position until the target is suppressed, destroyed, or otherwise neutralized. The prep aration for firing-target detection, ranging, direction and speed of movement of the firing tank (as well as the target), selection of ammunition, and the determination of initial sight picture-are all done on the move? As soon as the tank comes to a halt, the gunner must fire. The decision to move again is left up to the driver, and without close coordination, the tank might well halt and move out again before a shot is fired. Observation of the shot is also done on the move from one short halt to the next. Movement is made at maximum possible speed, with the distance between halts depending on the preparation of the main gun for the next shot, terrain, intensity of incoming fires, and conditions for observation. Usually, the distance between short halts is 50 to 150 meters.’ The Soviet gunner uses a variety of turret trainers and subcaliber devices in training for these situations. These tools are available at his home station and are used to reduce the number of main gun service rounds fired. The sheer size of the Soviet tank fleet makes extensive main gun firing economically impractical, and service ammunition is very limited.

One such subcaliber device is similar to the U. S. Stout board. A panel is placed in front of the gun muzzle, and the device is attached to the main gun tube. This solenoid pantograph drives a pin into the board whenever the triggers are pulled. The device is not particularly suited for training gunners to engage moving targets, and does not provide the loader with very realistic instruction. The pin pricks on the board do, however, give an accurate and permanent record of the gunner’s performance against stationary targets. Another device uses a focused beam of light and an aiming board. Images are flashed on the board by a movie projector, and the focused beam strikes the board when the gunner’s firng circuit is completed. Unlike our Stout b o d, the board does not block out some areas that might otherwise be used for target arrays. This device is usually incorporated onto a rocking sled arrangement that simulates tank movement, and the gunner can be trained to shoot on-the-move. An important drawback is that the training supervisor has no permanent record of the gunner’s performance. Also, since the rocking motion is mechanically induced, the gunner can learn the rhythm and anticipate the machine’s next move. Additionally, the focused beam of light eliminates all superelevation between the sights and gun, thus eliminating ranging practice.

Another device uses a motion picture camera that is strapped to the main-gun tube and is activated when the firng circuit is completed. Used in the same manner as the focused light device, it has essentially the same drawbacks. A permanent record of the firing is made, but unlike the pantograph device, the trainer and the trainee must wait for the film to be developed. As with the pantograph and the focused light device, the motion picture camera does not provide very realistic training for the loader.

One optical monitoring device that reduces the problem of relating the sight and gun tube superelevation is a burst-on-target (BOT) type trainer called the KOP-R optical mirror. This device fits over the optics of the gunner’s sight and is mechanically linked to the gun tube. It allows the instructor to see exactly what the gunner is doing with his sight picture-how he is ranging-how he indexes the superelevation, and exactly where he places the aiming point. Using this tool, the instructor can shine alight back through the sight and induce error into the sight picture. Using the light as a tracer, the gunner adjusts his sights using the BOT technique. The two major advantages of this system are the flexibility (it can be used against a widely-varied target array) and the fact that it provides feedback to the instructor (when the gunner makes a mistake, he can quickly be told what he did wrong). This device can also be used with the rocking sled frame if the instructor is willing to perch himself atop a careening turret mockup and look through the KOP-R.

Perhaps the most realistic device is the TOIT. This is a recoil and ejection mockup that can be mounted on the rocking sled. When the gunner fires, the main gun recoils, returns to battery, and runs through the ejection and reloading sequence. The device can be used to train the tank commander, the gunner, and on older model tanks, the loader.

To gain further understanding of Soviet gunnery practices, a more detailed examination of the individual skills that become battle drill is wmanted. Responses to a changing tactical situation are intensely dogmatic at platoon, company, and battalion level. Soviet gunnery combat drill supports this. As is characteristic of Soviet operations planning, every possible contingency is allowed for. The detail with which Soviet company and platoon commanders plan sectors of fire, reference points, and engagement areas is an example. The basics of Soviet fire distribution are simple. The commander uses one of two methods to break down the sectors of fm-either terrain points or reference-and-angle.

When using the terrain point method, the commander announces the borders of the sectors of fire as they relate to recognizable objects on the ground. An example would be, THIS IS KLEN TWO ZERO (The company commander’s call sign)-ZONE OF FIRE FOR TWO FOUR (the second platoon)-ON THE RIGHT-CORNER OF CLUMP OF T R E W N E FOUR HUNDRED METERS. ZONE

OF FIRE FOR TWO ONE (the first platoon)-ON THE RIGHT-LEFT-CROSSROADS-ONE

ZONE OF FIRE FOR TWO THREE (third platoon)-ON THE r---..- =’--I -1 R STADIA RANGEFINDING SCALE

This method is least preferred since it is wordy and apt to be misunderstood if tnnsmitted over the radio. It does, however, have the advantage of precision and clarity when presented face-teface.

The reference-and-angle method identifies an easily recognizable feature and sets the width of the sectors. For example, THIS IS KLEN STRAIGHT AHEAD-ONE

ZERO. In this brief statement, the commander has indicated that the left hand platoon takes the clump of trees, measures to a point 500 mils to the left of it, and takes that area as their sector of fire. The right platoon starts with the trees on the left, measures 500 mils to the right and uses that as their sector of fire. The center platoon simply measures 250 mils to either side of the trees (figure 2). In the event that there is no prominent feature in the exact direction of attack, the center point can also be shifted to the left or right. Volley fire is considered a viable and effective method of neutralizing enemy targets. At 2,500 meters, you stand a 25 percent probability of hit (Ph) if one tank shoots, but if the two tanks in the platoon fire, the Phis 58 percent, and if the whole company shoots, the Phjumps to 94 percent!’

The Soviet gunner‘straining is physically tough and like training for all Soviet soldiers regardless of their spicialty is repetitive. It excludes initiative and encourgages learning by rote.

Since the flat trajectory of the Soviet hypervelocity sabot round lends itself to the grazing shot, or battlesight, method of engagement, and since the stadia-type rangefmders become progressively more inaccurate at extended ranges, the destruction of targets at maximum range presents a great challenge to the Soviet gunner. Firing at ranges in excess of 2.500 meters requires precise target designation, skillful organization of fire, and correct adjustment. Fire for effect, therefore, is usually preceded by registration. The company conducts a direct, long-range fire mission in three phases: prepare to fire, registration, and fie for effect.8 Prepare to fire can be as simple as positioning the tanks within 40 ARMOR reasonable proximity to each other and acquiring the target. In addition, the commander must give the instructions for the first shots on target. These shots serve as the registration for the rest of the company. When the registration is complete, the “ladder” technique is employed. On command, one crew sets its sights slightly below, one crew sets right on, and one crew sets slightly above the announced settings. Crews of other platoons observe the strike of the rounds? When the correction is determined, the firing platoon reloads and the entire company fires in volleys until the target is destroyed. If speed is not a consideration, bracketing fire can be used to conduct the registration followed, as with ladder fire, by company volley fire. The Soviet gunner’straining is physically tough and, like training for all Soviet soldiers regardless of their specialty, is repetitive. It excludes initiative and encourages learning by rote. The Soviet gunner learns precision gunnery using the stadia range-tinder. He also learns the grazing shot technique, night fighting, and fires on a variety of gunnery simulators. He spends many hours at the pantograph, and using focused light beams, movie cameras, and TOPT trainers to analyze his performance. BOT trainers, recoil simulators, and in-bore subcaliber devices also are used, but in comparison to his American counterpart, the unique feeling of putting steel on target remains a thing of lectures rather than direct experience for the Soviet gunner.

The Soviet tank gunner may not have the natural mechanical aptitude of his American counterpart, but his equipment is designed to compensate for this. He may or may not be highly motivated with feelings of socialist fervor, but he is very closely supervised by his officers, and his political indoctrination is thorough. As part of a platoon, and as part of a company, the Soviet gunner learns by rote the techniques of long-range gunnery, ladder, and bracketing fire in platoon and company volleys. Repetition is the essence of his training. In the absence of further orders, the Soviet gunner will continue to follow instructions even though they have become obviously inappropriate.

The average Soviet gunner is 5 feet 4 inches tall, competent, well-conditioned physically, and will do what he is told. In combat, he will do everything in his power to make his enemy’s life a good deal shorter (or, at the very least, most unpleasant) than it would be otherwise.

He is tough-but he is beatable.

‘DOD Bulletin 1100-1-7-78: Defense Intelligence Report: The Soviet Motorized Rifle Banalion. September 1978, p 57. *. Sorier Tank Crew Training, volume 2, annex C. appendix 15, p C-I. 34bid.

“Ibid.

5,1bid.

6.’‘Fire Distribution in Battle,” by Lieutenant Colonel F. Rodinov, Vogennyy Vesmik in Russian, Number 1, 1976, p 92 and 93. ’. Sovier Tank Crew Truining, volume 2, annex C, appendix 15, p C-11. 8.”Fire to Maximum Range,” by Captain N. Korschunov, Voyennyy Vestnick in Russian, Number 2, 1980. p 70-72.

9.1bid.

CAPTAIN MATIHEW WILLIAMS was commissioned in 1977 as a distinguished military graduate from the Universityof Pennsylvania. He has served as platoon leader in his initial assignments and later as S1 at battalion and brigade levels in Gerrnanv. He is Dresentlv serving with the XVlll Airborne Corps G3 Air.